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- Data Availability: All data are included as Supporting information. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Introduction The development of motor competence in children and adolescents and the adoption of a lifestyle involving participation in regular exercise and physical activity have been associated with numerous physical and psychological health benefits, which are well documented in the literature [ 1 — 3 ]. It is considered one of the most powerful underlying mechanisms that promote engagement and persistence in physical activity, higher levels of sport participation, and physical fitness [ 2 , 3 ].
- Therefore, children with a higher level of actual motor competence are more apt to become physically active and fit adolescents [ 3 ]. Experiences of successful motor executions, measured in terms of increased skill proficiency, are expected to enhance perceived competence, which in turn might influence motivation toward physical activity [ 10 ]. Hence, both actual and perceived motor competence are considered important correlates and determinants of physical activity and fitness in boys and girls [ 5 ]. Fundamental motor skills are commonly considered the building blocks for more advanced lifetime movement skills and the foundation for an active lifestyle [ 10 , 11 ]. Previous research has demonstrated the existence of age and gender differences in mastery of fundamental motor skills [ 12 , 13 ].
- These include locomotor skills, involving the movement of the body from one location to another e. Higher fundamental motor skill competence was found with increasing age [ 12 , 13 ] as a result of learning and practice [ 14 ]. Furthermore, object control skills appeared to be better mastered by boys [ 11 — 13 , 15 ], who also reported higher perceived competence scores compared to girls [ 16 , 17 ]. Gender differences were also reported by Pesce et al. The percentage of girls who underestimated their skills was higher than the percentage of girls who overestimated themselves. In boys an opposite trend was observed with a higher percentage of overestimators. Interestingly, children who overestimated their locomotor competence were also found to practice a larger amount of sport than those who underestimated themselves. However, differences between actual and perceived motor competence in young children are equivocal, probably because existing research in this area has evaluated these two variables with no direct alignment between assessments [ 17 , 19 ], alignment that would derive from measuring actual and perceived movement competence in same skills.
- To date, few studies have used objective measures of both perceived and actual competence of the same skills [ 17 , 18 , 20 , 21 ]. Using aligned assessments e. Different measures have been developed and validated to evaluate actual and perceived fundamental motor skills in children. For instance, the Test of Gross Motor Development— 2nd edition TGMD-2; [ 22 ] , intended to measure motor competence in 3 to 10 years old children, is one of the most widely used instruments in clinical, educational, and research settings.
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Given the importance of assessing actual and perceived motor skill competence in young children, the aim of our study was to investigate whether actual motor competence of year-old children related to their perceptions of competence. As previously noted, results showed that a substantial percentage of children underestimated or overestimated their locomotor and object control skills. However, the factorial validity of the two scales was not examined before conducting the analyses. Therefore, further investigation is needed to examine the extent to which children are able to accurately evaluate themselves. To this purpose, we first examined the factorial validity of the TGMD-2 and PMSC-2 scales, and then the relationships among the latent factors of the two scales. In line with earlier findings [ 18 ], we expected to find weak associations between actual and perceived competence in children.- A secondary purpose of this study was to investigate possible age- and gender-related differences. We expected boys and older children to show higher levels of both actual and perceived skill competence than girls and the younger cohort, respectively [ 4 , 13 , 18 ]. Method Participants The initial sample comprised children girls and boys , aged 6 to 7 years, drawn from 36 mixed gender classes of primary schools located in a region in Central Italy. At the time of the assessment the participants did not suffer from visible diseases, were able to take part in school physical activities, and did not have diagnosed physical or cognitive impairments the latter information was certified by the teachers. The TGMD-2 is a process-oriented assessment tool designed to gauge the gross motor development of 3 to 10 years old children [ 22 ]. The test consists of two six-item subscales to measure locomotor skills i. Specific guidelines for completion of the TGMD-2 exist [ 22 ]. Each skill is explained and demonstrated to the children by trained assessors using standard instructions.
- The participant is then allowed one practice trial followed by two formal trials that are scored according to 3 to 5, behaviorally-based performance criteria, depending on the skill. A total raw score 0—48 points is the sum of the observed criteria for each item of the two subscales. The individual assessment can usually be completed within 20—30 min. All trials are videotaped, and coding is conducted through video analysis. Research findings generally support the two-factor structure, validity, and reliability of the TGMD-2 e. Barnett and colleagues [ 23 — 25 ] developed the PMSC-2 pictorial scale assessing the same six locomotor and six object control skills included in the TGMD-2 [ 22 ].
- Six additional items assess perceived competence in active play related to free time activities riding a bike, riding a scooter, lying on a board and paddling with the arms, roller skating, swimming, climbing a rope. Each skill is ordered in a sequence of cartoon images of a child executing the skill competently opposed to an image of a child executing the same skill not so competently. Thus, two pictures depict good and poor performance of a same skill. Girls are presented with a booklet portraying girl cartoon figures, while boys are presented with boy figures. Children are required to choose which picture is most like them i. Then, within the chosen picture, children are asked to further indicate their perceived competence. Thus, four perceived competence levels are assessed in each picture, with possible scores ranging from 6 to 24 in each subscale. A total raw score 0—72 points is the sum of perceived competence scores for each item of the three subscales.
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The individual assessment usually takes approximately 15—20 min. Reliability and validity of the instrument have been established [ 23 — 25 ]. For example, in a sample of Australian children alpha reliability values were. Factor loadings ranged from. Approval was also obtained from the school headmasters after the purpose of the study was explained to them. Four experts were specifically instructed in administering the TGMD-2 and coding the data. The TGMD-2 assessment was conducted in pairs, with two evaluators always present. Each child was allowed one practice trial before two formal trials.- Each evaluator then rated independently the video recorded performances. In case of disagreement, the video recorded performance was reexamined to reach consensus see Results. Other three experts were instructed about administration and scoring of the PMSC-2 scale. TGMD-2 assessments were conducted individually during physical education lessons at a shared gym space but separate from the usual activity sessions held by the physical education teacher.
- PMSC-2 assessments were also conducted individually in a secluded location close to the gym and without the presence of the teacher. Children were presented with the booklet depicting the skills to be assessed, informed that there were no right or wrong responses, and assured that their answers would remain confidential. The evaluators always made sure that children had complete understanding of the instructions and items of both instruments. Fixing parameters to zero e. As a result, the improved fit of the modified model in a particular sample may not replicate in another sample.
- Bayesian models are more flexible allowing parameter estimation even with small sample sizes where SEM approaches often lead to model identification issues. Moreover, Bayesian approaches allow the incorporation of previous knowledge into the analyses, which can provide more precise estimates of the parameters in the model tests [ 32 , 33 ].
- In particular, Bayesian structural equation modeling BSEM , as an alternative to SEM, can better reflect substantive theories by replacing the parameter specification e. Prior distributions can be informative priors based on previous findings and theoretical predictions, or empirical priors based on observed data [ 33 ]. MCMC involves an iterative process where a prior distribution is specified, and posterior values of each parameter are estimated in a chain of a number of iterations to define the posterior distribution.
- Convergence of the iteration process can be evaluated through the potential scale reduction PSR , which represents the ratio of total variance between chains and pooled variance within chain. Convergence can also be assessed by visually inspecting trace and autocorrelation plots of the posterior distribution. Convergence is manifested when fluctuations in the chain and trends over time of generated parameter values are stable [ 37 ]. To improve the structural solution, the first step was to conduct a pilot study in a small sample randomly extracted from the whole sample from which the prior information was obtained [ 38 ]. Second, to examine possible gender and age differences in the latent factors on both scales, gender and age i. A gender by age interaction term was also computed and entered as covariate. Items of both scales were treated as categorical rather than continuous variables because the item ratings of the TGMD-2 ranged from zero to three, four, or five points, and the PMCS-2 items were four-point ordinal responses.
- The final sample comprised children girls and boys, 6 years old; girls and boys, 7 years old; see S1 Dataset. A subsample of children, with an equal number of participants i. The PMSC-2 data were reassessed using informative priors, namely, cross-loading parameter values previously estimated on the pilot study. Three items, namely, sliding locomotion factor , rolling a ball object control factor , and riding a scooter active play factor were then removed leading to a three-factor, item scale 5 items in each factor.
- Subsequent analyses on the large sample involved testing the goodness-of-fit on a model without priors, a model with informative priors on cross-loadings, and a model with informative priors on cross-loadings and residual correlations within an identified model. BSEM fit and convergence results reported in Table 1 show model fit improvement when informative priors cross-loadings and residual correlations were included in the analysis.
- Training and Educational Resources The Child Care Videos for Providers and Parents found on The California Child Care Licensing: Resources for Parents and Providers website addresses three user groups: 1 child care center operators, 2 family child care providers, and 3 parents and families. Within each category, you will find topics tailored to the needs of that specific group. Each topic on the website contains videos and resources designed to benefit prospective and current child care providers, families who are seeking child care for the first time, and families with children in care. You will learn: How the law defines child abuse and neglect What the law requires of you as a mandated reporter What protections the law provides for a mandated reporter How to spot evidence of child abuse How to report child abuse What happens after a report is filed Definitions of some of the terms used in this program You will receive a Certificate for your records upon completion of the training.
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Beginning January 1, , Health and Safety Code The following is a list of approved Alternate Mandated Reporter Trainings. All trainings on this list are approved statewide. Offered statewide, this series of classes helps providers improve their knowledge, skills and quality of care. Options for both academic credit and continuing education units are available. The Reducing the Risk of SIDS in Early Education and Child Care online module can be used by child care providers, healthcare professionals, public health educators, or just about anyone who cares for babies. Preventing and Managing Infectious Diseases in Early Education and Child Care : This course provides you with reliable national resources for guidance on preventing and managing infectious diseases and is designed for everyone who cares for children, including health care professionals and child care providers.- Zero to Three works to ensure that babies and toddlers benefit from the early connections that are critical to their well-being and development by providing training for child care providers and caregivers. More information on CAFCC and a list of other family child care associations is available on their website. The Professional Association for Childhood Education PACE is a nonprofit, tax-exempt, and membership-based organization that promotes excellence in education and quality child care in private center-based programs. Californians for Quality Early Learning CQEL aims to advance early learning quality by supporting programs in integrating best practices and advocating for thriving mixed delivery systems for children and families.
- The California Association for the Education of Young Children CAEYC serves and acts on behalf of the needs and rights of young children with primary focus on the provision of educational services and resources to adults who work with and for children from birth through age eight. The National Association for the Education of Young Children NAEYC is dedicated to improving the well-being of all young children, with particular focus on the quality of educational and developmental services for all children from birth through age 8.
- The California Alternative Payment Program Association CAPPA was created to serve as a voice for a mixed delivery system of public and private community based agencies dedicated to connecting poor families and their children to child care and early learning. CAPPA provides ongoing support services to child care programs and providers and access to information and connection to child nutrition programs, resource libraries, and continuing education opportunities.
- NAFCC is the only professional association dedicated specifically to promoting high-quality early childhood experiences in the unique environment of family child care programs. EveryChild California is a nonprofit association that inspires leadership in early learning and education, and increase opportunities to expand quality publicly funded early care and education ECE programs across California. CCPU is dedicated to improving the child care profession and ensuring every child has access to quality early learning and care.
Actual And Perceived Motor Competence: Are Children Accurate In Their Perceptions?
Financial Assistance There are state and federal child care funding options available, as well as community resources that provide help in the facility development process for both new and established child care providers. For more information, click on the links below:.Parenting Knowledge, Attitudes, And Practices - Parenting Matters - NCBI Bookshelf
But the worst nightmare a parent can have is finding out that his or her child is being abused while in the care of someone else. Each year, nearly a million cases of child maltreatment, which includes both abuse and neglect, are confirmed, and many more probably go unreported. If you are a child care provider who suspects that a child in your care has been abused or neglected, it is essential that you report your suspicions. Child care providers are mandated reporters of abuse and neglect, and all mandated reporters should have training to help identify child abuse and neglect and learn the procedure for reporting. Beginning January 1, , AB Mandated child abuse reporting: child day care personnel: training requires all licensed providers, applicants, directors, and employees to complete a mandated reporter training.ESC Guidance For The Diagnosis And Management Of CV Disease During The COVID Pandemic
The deadline for licensed providers to comply with the training is March 30, The new employees have up to 90 days to complete their training. New applicants must receive their mandated reporter training prior to becoming licensed. In this training, you will learn about the roles and responsibilities of child care providers in preventing, recognizing, reporting, and responding to child abuse and neglect within and outside early childhood programs and child care settings. It also gives an overview of prevention efforts, reporting laws, and the ways child care providers can talk to children about suspected abuse and support maltreated children and their families.
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